List of references used in preparing the Veterinary Echocardiology reference guide (2025).
1 Keene BW, Atkins CE, Bonagura JD, et al. ACVIM consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of myxomatous mitral valve disease in dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2019; 33: 1127–1140. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15488
2 Rishniw M, Caivano D, Dickson D, Vatne L, Harris J, Matos JN. Two-dimensional echocardiographic left- atrial-to-aortic ratio in healthy adult dogs: a reexamination of reference intervals. J Vet Cardiol. 2019 Dec;26:29-38. doi: 10.1016/j.jvc.2019.11.001. Epub 2019 Nov 14. PMID: 31794915.
3 L.E. Strohm, L.C. Visser, E.H. Chapel, W.T. Drost, J.D. Bonagura. Two-dimensional, long-axis echocardiographic ratios for assessment of left atrial and ventricular size in dogs, Journal of Veterinary Cardiology, Volume 20, Issue 5,2018,
4 Cornell CC, Kittleson MD, Della Torre P, Häggström J, Lombard CW, Pedersen HD, Vollmar A, Wey A. Allometric scaling of M-mode cardiac measurements in normal adult dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2004 May-Jun;18(3):311-21. doi: 10.1892/0891-6640(2004)18<311:asomcm>2.0.co;2. PMID: 15188817.
5 Boon, June. (2016). Two-Dimensional and M-Mode Echocardiography for the Small Animal Practitioner: Second Edition. 10.1002/9781119028574.
6 Holler PJ, Wess G. Sphericity index and E-point-to-septal-separation (EPSS) to diagnose dilated cardiomyopathy in Doberman Pinschers. J Vet Intern Med. 2014 Jan-Feb;28(1):123-9. doi: 10.1111/jvim.12242. Epub 2013 Nov 13. PMID: 24428318; PMCID: PMC4895524.
7 Schober, K.E. and Fuentes, V.L. (2001), MITRAL ANNULUS MOTION AS DETERMINED BY M-MODE ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY IN NORMAL DOGS AND DOGS WITH CARDIAC DISEASE. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound, 42: 52-61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8261.2001.tb00904.x
8 Kim JH, Park HM. Usefulness of conventional and tissue Doppler echocardiography to predict congestive heart failure in dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease. J Vet Intern Med. 2015 Jan;29(1):132-40. doi: 10.1111/jvim.12466. Epub 2014 Sep 30. PMID: 25270196; PMCID: PMC4858102.
9 Schober, K.E., Hart, T.M., Stern, J.A., Li, X., Samii, V.F., Zekas, L.J., Scansen, B.A. and Bonagura, J.D. (2010), Detection of Congestive Heart Failure in Dogs by Doppler Echocardiography. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 24: 1358-1368. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0592.x
10 Schober KE, Fuentes VL. Effects of age, body weight, and heart rate on transmitral and pulmonary venous flow in clinically normal dogs. Am J Vet Res. 2001 Sep;62(9):1447-54. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.1447. PMID: 11560276.
11 Visser LC, Scansen BA, Schober KE, Bonagura JD. Echocardiographic assessment of right ventricular systolic function in conscious healthy dogs: repeatability and reference intervals. J Vet Cardiol. 2015 Jun;17(2):83-96. doi: 10.1016/j.jvc.2014.10.003. Epub 2014 Dec 23. PMID: 25547662.
12 Tidholm A, Höglund K, Häggström J, Ljungvall I. Diagnostic Value of Selected Echocardiographic Variables to Identify Pulmonary Hypertension in Dogs with Myxomatous Mitral Valve Disease. J Vet Intern Med. 2015 Nov-Dec;29(6):1510-7. doi: 10.1111/jvim.13609. Epub 2015 Sep 14. PMID: 26365438; PMCID: PMC4895671.
13 Caivano D, Dickson D, Pariaut R, Stillman M, Rishniw M. Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion-to-aortic ratio provides a bodyweight-independent measure of right ventricular systolic function in dogs. J Vet Cardiol. 2018 Apr;20(2):79-91. doi: 10.1016/j.jvc.2018.01.005. Epub 2018 Mar 2. PMID: 29503235.
14 Feldhütter EK, Domenech O, Vezzosi T, et al. Right ventricular size and function evaluated by various echocardiographic indices in dogs with pulmonary hypertension. J Vet Intern Med. 2022; 36(6): 1882-1891. doi:10.1111/jvim.16496
15 Feldhütter EK, Domenech O, Vezzosi T, et al. Echocardiographic reference intervals for right ventricular indices, including 3-dimensional volume and 2-dimensional strain measurements in healthy dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2022; 36(1): 8-19. doi:10.1111/jvim.16331 normal.
16 Chetboul V, Damoiseaux C, Lefebvre HP, Concordet D, Desquilbet L, Gouni V, Poissonnier C, Pouchelon JL, Tissier R. Quantitative assessment of systolic and diastolic right ventricular function by echocardiography and speckle-tracking imaging: a prospective study in 104 dogs. J Vet Sci. 2018 Sep;19(5):683-692. https://doi.org/10.4142/jvs.2018.19.5.683
17 Luis Fuentes V, Abbott J, Chetboul V, et al. ACVIM consensus statement guidelines for the classification, diagnosis, and management of cardiomyopathies in cats. J Vet Intern Med. 2020; 34: 1062–1077. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15745
18 Kittleson MD, Côté E. The Feline Cardiomyopathies: 2. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Feline Med Surg. 2021 Nov;23(11):1028-1051. doi: 10.1177/1098612X211020162. PMID: 34693811; PMCID: PMC8642168.
19 Novo Matos J, Payne JR, Seo J, Luis Fuentes V. Natural history of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in cats from rehoming centers: The CatScan II study. J Vet Intern Med. 2022; 36(6): 1900-1912. doi:10.1111/jvim.16576
20 Ferasin, L.; Ferasin, H.; Cala, A.; Creelman, N. Prevalence and Clinical Significance of Heart Murmurs Detected on Cardiac Auscultation in 856 Cats. Vet. Sci. 2022, 9, 564. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci9100564
21 Spalla I, Payne JR, Borgeat K, Pope A, Fuentes VL, Connolly DJ. Mitral Annular Plane Systolic Excursion and Tricuspid Annular Plane Systolic Excursion in Cats with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. J Vet Intern Med. 2017 May;31(3):691-699. doi: 10.1111/jvim.14697. Epub 2017 Mar 30. PMID: 28370313; PMCID: PMC5435071.
22 https://www.vin.com/apputil/content/defaultadv1.aspx?id=4516352&pid=11310
23 Schober, K.E. and Maerz, I. (2006), Assessment of Left Atrial Appendage Flow Velocity and its Relation to Spontaneous Echocardiographic Contrast in 89 Cats with Myocardial Disease. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 20: 120-130. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2006.tb02831.x
24 Koffas H, Dukes-McEwan J, Corcoran BM, Moran CM, French A, Sboros V, Simpson K, McDicken WN. Pulsed tissue Doppler imaging in normal cats and cats with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Vet Intern Med. 2006 Jan-Feb;20(1):65-77. doi: 10.1892/0891-6640(2006)20[65:ptdiin]2.0.co;2. PMID: 16496925.
25 Rohrbaugh MN, Schober KE, Rhinehart JD, Bonagura JD, Habing A, Yildiz V. Detection of congestive heart failure by Doppler echocardiography in cats with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Vet Intern Med. 2020 May;34(3):1091-1101. doi: 10.1111/jvim.15777. Epub 2020 May 4. PMID: 32364632; PMCID: PMC7255654.
26 Payne JR, Borgeat K, Connolly DJ, Boswood A, Dennis S, Wagner T, Menaut P, Maerz I, Evans D, Simons VE, Brodbelt DC, Luis Fuentes V. Prognostic indicators in cats with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Vet Intern Med. 2013 Nov-Dec;27(6):1427-36. doi: 10.1111/jvim.12215. Epub 2013 Oct 17. PMID: 24134821.
- Boswood A, et al. Effect of Pimobendan in Dogs with Preclinical Myxomatous Mitral Valve Disease and Cardiomegaly: The EPIC Study—A Randomized Clinical Trial. JVIM. 2016;30:1765-1779.
- Buchanan JW, Bücheler J. Vertebral scale system to measure canine heart size in radiographs. JAVMA. 1995;206(2):194-199.
- Jepsen-Grant K, et al. Vertebral heart scores in eight dog breeds. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2013;54(1):3-8.
- Lamb CR, et al. Use of breed-specific ranges for the vertebral heart scale as an aid to the radiographic diagnosis of cardiac disease in dogs. Vet Rec. 2001;148(23):707-711.
- Taylor CJ, et al. Norwich terriers possess a greater vertebral heart scale than the canine reference value. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2019;1-6.
- Bavegems V, et al. Vertebral heart size ranges specific for whippets. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2005;46(5):400-403.
28 https://www.cliniciansbrief.com/article/vertebral-heart-scale
29 Cerbu M, Cerbu C, Papuc I. M-Mode Echocardiography in Canine Veterinary Practice: A Comprehensive Review of Left Ventricular Measurements in 44 Different Dog Breeds. Animals. 2023; 13(18):2986. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13182986
30 Wess G, Bauer A, Kopp A. Echocardiographic reference intervals for volumetric measurements of the left ventricle using the Simpson’s method of discs in 1331 dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2021 Mar;35(2):724-738. doi: 10.1111/jvim.16089. Epub 2021 Mar 6. PMID: 33675121; PMCID: PMC7995437.
31 Vurucu M, Ekinci G, Gunes V. An echocardiographic study of breed-specific reference ranges in healthy French Bulldogs. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2021 Sep;62(5):573-582. doi: 10.1111/vru.12997. Epub 2021 Jun 9. PMID: 34109689.
32 Wess G, Mäurer J, Simak J, Hartmann K. Use of Simpson’s method of disc to detect early echocardiographic changes in Doberman Pinschers with dilated cardiomyopathy. J Vet Intern Med. 2010 Sep-Oct;24(5):1069-76. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0575.x. Epub 2010 Aug 12. PMID: 20707842.
33 Borow KM, Green LH, Mann T, Sloss LJ, Braunwald E, Collins JJ, Cohn L, Grossman W. End-systolic volume as a predictor of postoperative left ventricular performance in volume overload from valvular regurgitation. Am J Med. 1980 May;68(5):655-63. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(80)90251-x. PMID: 7377221.
34 Choi J, Kim H, Yoon J. Pulsed tissue Doppler imaging of the left ventricular septal mitral annulus in healthy dogs. J Vet Sci. 2013;14(1):85-90. doi: 10.4142/jvs.2013.14.1.85. Epub 2013 Feb 5. PMID: 23388437; PMCID: PMC3615237.
35 De Madron, Eric & Chetboul, Valérie & Bussadori, Claudio. (2015). Clinical Echocardiography of the Dog and Cat Elsevier, St Louis, MO, 2015.
36 Esser, Lilith Carla, Martin Borkovec, Alexander Bauer, Jens Häggström and Gerhard Wess. “Left ventricular M‐mode prediction intervals in 7651 dogs: Population‐wide and selected breed‐specific values.” Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 34 (2020): 2242 – 2252.
37 Keene BW, Atkins CE, Bonagura JD, et al. ACVIM consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of myxomatous mitral valve disease in dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2019; 33: 1127–1140. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15488
38 Holler PJ, Wess G. Sphericity index and E-point-to-septal-separation (EPSS) to diagnose dilated cardiomyopathy in Doberman Pinschers. J Vet Intern Med. 2014 Jan-Feb;28(1):123-9. doi: 10.1111/jvim.12242. Epub 2013 Nov 13. PMID: 24428318; PMCID: PMC4895524.
39 Veterinary Cardiovascular Society notes for heart scanning for breed screening, https://www.vet-cardio.co.uk/members-heart-screening/, checked July 2025
40 Vezzosi T, Mannucci T, Pistoresi A, Toma F, Tognetti R, Zini E, Domenech O, Auriemma E, Citi S. Assessment of Lung Ultrasound B-Lines in Dogs with Different Stages of Chronic Valvular Heart Disease. J Vet Intern Med. 2017 May;31(3):700-704. doi: 10.1111/jvim.14692. Epub 2017 Mar 29. PMID: 28370336; PMCID: PMC5435052.
41 Ward JL, Lisciandro GR, Ware WA, Miles KG, Viall AK, DeFrancesco TC. Lung ultrasonography findings in dogs with various underlying causes of cough. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2019 Sep 1;255(5):574-583. doi: 10.2460/javma.255.5.574. PMID: 31429645.
43 Mikawa S, Nagakawa M, Ogi H, Akabane R, Koyama Y, Sakatani A, Ogawa M, Miyakawa H, Shigemoto J, Tokuriki T, Toda N, Miyagawa Y, Takemura N. Use of vertebral left atrial size for staging of dogs with myxomatous valve disease. J Vet Cardiol. 2020 Aug;30:92-99. doi: 10.1016/j.jvc.2020.06.001. Epub 2020 Jun 23. PMID: 32707334.
44 Borgarelli M, Crosara S, Lamb K, Savarino P, La Rosa G, Tarducci A, Haggstrom J. Survival characteristics and prognostic variables of dogs with preclinical chronic degenerative mitral valve disease attributable to myxomatous degeneration. J Vet Intern Med. 2012 Jan-Feb;26(1):69-75. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.00860.x. Epub 2011 Dec 23. PMID: 22211523.
45 Borgarelli M, Savarino P, Crosara S, Santilli RA, Chiavegato D, Poggi M, Bellino C, La Rosa G, Zanatta R, Haggstrom J, Tarducci A. Survival characteristics and prognostic variables of dogs with mitral regurgitation attributable to myxomatous valve disease. J Vet Intern Med. 2008 Jan-Feb;22(1):120-8. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2007.0008.x. PMID: 18289298.
46 Bussadori C, Amberger C, Le Bobinnec G, Lombard CW. Guidelines for the echocardiographic studies of suspected subaortic and pulmonic stenosis. J Vet Cardiol. 2000 Dec;2(2):15-22. doi: 10.1016/S1760-2734(06)70007-8. PMID: 19081330. https://www.esvcardio.org/sites/site-2726/documents/Bussadori%20guidelines%20for%20SAS%20and%20PS%20JVC%202000.pdf
47 Kittleson MD, Côté E. The Feline Cardiomyopathies: 1. General concepts. J Feline Med Surg. 2021 Nov;23(11):1009-1027. doi: 10.1177/1098612X211021819. PMID: 34693806; PMCID: PMC8723176.
48 Wyatt H.L., Haendchen R.V., Meerbaum S., Corday E. Assessment of quantitative methods for 2-dimensional echocardiography. Am. J. Cardiol. 1983;52:396–401. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(83)90146-7.
49 Echocardiography. In: Cardiovascular Disease in Companion Animals Dog, Cat, and Horse. Ware WA and Bonagura JD (editors), 2nd edition. Boca Raton, Florida, USA; pp. 95-106.
50 Visser LC, Ciccozzi MM, Sintov DJ, Sharpe AN. Echocardiographic quantitation of left heart size and function in 122 healthy dogs: A prospective study proposing reference intervals and assessing repeatability. J Vet Intern Med. 2019 Sep;33(5):1909-1920. doi: 10.1111/jvim.15562.
51 Mattin MJ, Boswood A, Church DB, Brodbelt DC. Prognostic factors in dogs with presumed degenerative mitral valve disease attending primary-care veterinary practices in the United Kingdom. J Vet Intern Med. 2019; 33: 432–444. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15251
52 Borgarelli M, Haggstrom J. Canine degenerative myxomatous mitral valve disease: natural history, clinical presentation and therapy. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2010 Jul;40(4):651-63. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.03.008. PMID: 20610017.
53 Ross ES, Visser LC, Sbardellati N, Potter BM, Ohlendorf A, Scansen BA. Utility of vertebral left atrial size and vertebral heart size to aid detection of congestive heart failure in dogs with respiratory signs. J Vet Intern Med. 2023 Nov-Dec;37(6):2021-2029. doi: 10.1111/jvim.16918. Epub 2023 Oct 26. PMID: 37882250; PMCID: PMC10658574.
54 An S, Hwang G, Noh SA, Yoon Y, Lee HC, Hwang TS. A Retrospective Study of Radiographic Measurements of Small Breed Dogs with Myxomatous Mitral Valve Degeneration: A New Modified Vertebral Left Atrial Size. J Vet Clin 2023;40:31-37. https://doi.org/10.17555/jvc.2023.40.1.31
55 M. Borgarelli, L. Ferasin, K. Lamb, D. Chiavegato, C. Bussadori, G. D’Agnolo, F. Migliorini, M. Poggi, R.A. Santilli, E. Guillot, C. Garelli-Paar, R. Toschi Corneliani, F. Farina, A. Zani, M. Dirven, P. Smets, C. Guglielmini, P. Oliveira, M. Di Marcello, F. Porciello, S. Crosara, P. Ciaramella, D. Piantedosi, S. Smith, S. Vannini, E. Dall’Aglio, P. Savarino, C. Quintavalla, M. Patteson, J. Silva, C. Locatelli, M. Baron Toaldo, The predictive value of clinical, radiographic, echocardiographic variables and cardiac biomarkers for assessing risk of the onset of heart failure or cardiac death in dogs with preclinical myxomatous mitral valve disease enrolled in the DELAY study, Journal of Veterinary Cardiology, Volume 36, 2021, Pages 77-88, ISSN 1760-2734, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvc.2021.04.009.
56 Marchesotti F, Vezzosi T, Tognetti R, Marchetti F, Patata V, Contiero B, Zini E, Domenech O. Left atrial anteroposterior diameter in dogs: reference interval, allometric scaling, and agreement with the left atrial-to-aortic root ratio. J Vet Med Sci. 2019 Dec 5;81(11):1655-1662. doi: 10.1292/jvms.19-0240. Epub 2019 Oct 14. PMID: 31611490; PMCID: PMC6895628.
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64 Sankisov JN, Visser LC, Davis KE, Boon JA, Ross ES, Laws AC. Two-dimensional echocardiographic right heart ratios for assessment of right heart size in dogs: Reference intervals and reproducibility. J Vet Intern Med. 2024; 38(6): 3005-3015. doi:10.1111/jvim.17159
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68 Reinero C, Visser LC, Kellihan HB, Masseau I, Rozanski E, Clercx C, Williams K, Abbott J, Borgarelli M, Scansen BA. ACVIM consensus statement guidelines for the diagnosis, classification, treatment, and monitoring of pulmonary hypertension in dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2020 Mar;34(2):549-573. doi: 10.1111/jvim.15725. Epub 2020 Feb 17. PMID: 32065428; PMCID: PMC7097566.
69 Vezzosi T, Grosso G, Tognetti R, Meucci V, Patata V, Marchesotti F, Domenech O. The Mitral INsufficiency Echocardiographic score: A severity classification of myxomatous mitral valve disease in dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2021 May;35(3):1238-1244. doi: 10.1111/jvim.16131. Epub 2021 May 5. PMID: 33951235; PMCID: PMC8163114.